LECTURE NOTES

https://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/string.html

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

https://science.nasa.gov/ems

Here is the entire electromagnetic spectrum listed by wavelength in nanometers (nm):

Here is the entire electromagnetic spectrum listed by wavelength in nanometers (nm):

1. Gamma Rays: < 0.01 nm
2. X-Rays: 0.01 - 10 nm
3. Ultraviolet (UV) Light: 10 - 400 nm
   • UV-C: 100 - 280 nm
   • UV-B: 280 - 320 nm
   • UV-A: 320 - 400 nm
4. Visible Light: 400 - 700 nm
   • Violet: 380 - 450 nm
   • Blue: 450 - 495 nm
   • Green: 495 - 570 nm
   • Yellow: 570 - 590 nm
   • Orange: 590 - 620 nm
   • Red: 620 - 750 nm
5. Infrared (IR) Light: 700 nm - 1 mm
   • Near-IR: 700 - 1400 nm
   • Mid-IR: 1400 - 30000 nm
   • Far-IR: 30000 nm - 1 mm
6. Microwaves: 1 mm - 1 m
7. Radio Waves: > 1 m

FREQUENCY IN (Hz)

Here’s a comprehensive list of the electromagnetic spectrum categorized by frequency in hertz (Hz):

1. Radio Waves:

   • Extremely Low Frequency (ELF): 3 Hz to 30 Hz
   • Very Low Frequency (VLF): 30 Hz to 3 kHz
   • Low Frequency (LF): 3 kHz to 30 kHz
   • Medium Frequency (MF): 30 kHz to 300 kHz
   • High Frequency (HF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz
   • Very High Frequency (VHF): 3 MHz to 30 MHz
   • Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 30 MHz to 300 MHz
   • Super High Frequency (SHF): 300 MHz to 3 GHz
   • Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 3 GHz to 30 GHz

2. Microwaves:

   • 300 MHz to 300 GHz (0.3 GHz to 300,000 MHz)

3. Terahertz Radiation:

   • 0.1 THz to 3 THz (100 GHz to 3,000 GHz)

4. Infrared Radiation:

   • Near Infrared: 0.75 THz to 1 THz (750 GHz to 1,000 GHz)
   • Mid Infrared: 1 THz to 30 THz (1,000 GHz to 30,000 GHz)
   • Far Infrared: 30 THz to 300 THz (30,000 GHz to 300,000 GHz)

5. Visible Light:

   • Approximately 430 THz to 750 THz (430,000 GHz to 750,000 GHz)

6. Ultraviolet Light:

   • 30 PHz to 3 EHz (30,000 THz to 3,000 THz)

7. X-Rays:

   • 30 EHz to 30 ZHz (30,000 PHz to 30,000,000 THz)

8. Gamma Rays:

   • 30 EHz (greater than 30,000 PHz)

This categorization includes the frequency ranges for various types of electromagnetic radiation, illustrating the vast spectrum of electromagnetic frequencies.

The electromagnetic spectrum can also be described in terms of vibrations or oscillations, typically expressed in hertz (Hz), which indicates the number of cycles per second. Here’s the complete list of the electromagnetic spectrum categorized by frequency in vibrations (Hz):

1. Radio Waves:

   • Extremely Low Frequency (ELF): 3 Hz to 30 Hz
   • Very Low Frequency (VLF): 30 Hz to 3 kHz
   • Low Frequency (LF): 3 kHz to 30 kHz
   • Medium Frequency (MF): 30 kHz to 300 kHz
   • High Frequency (HF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz
   • Very High Frequency (VHF): 3 MHz to 30 MHz
   • Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 30 MHz to 300 MHz
   • Super High Frequency (SHF): 300 MHz to 3 GHz
   • Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 3 GHz to 30 GHz

2. Microwaves:

   • 300 MHz to 300 GHz (0.3 GHz to 300,000 MHz), equivalent to $10^8$ to $3 \times 10^{11}$ Hz

3. Terahertz Radiation:

   • 0.1 THz to 3 THz (100 GHz to 3,000 GHz), equivalent to $10^{11}$ to $3 \times 10^{12}$ Hz

4. Infrared Radiation:

   • Near Infrared: 0.75 THz to 1 THz (750 GHz to 1,000 GHz), equivalent to $7.5 \times 10^{11}$ to $10^{12}$ Hz
   • Mid Infrared: 1 THz to 30 THz (1,000 GHz to 30,000 GHz), equivalent to $10^{12}$ to $3 \times 10^{13}$ Hz
   • Far Infrared: 30 THz to 300 THz (30,000 GHz to 300,000 GHz), equivalent to $3 \times 10^{13}$ to $3 \times 10^{14}$ Hz

5. Visible Light:

   • Approximately 430 THz to 750 THz (430,000 GHz to 750,000 GHz), equivalent to $4.3 \times 10^{14}$ to $7.5 \times 10^{14}$ Hz

6. Ultraviolet Light:

   • 30 PHz to 3 EHz (30,000 THz to 3,000 THz), equivalent to $3 \times 10^{16}$ to $3 \times 10^{18}$ Hz

7. X-Rays:

   • 30 EHz to 30 ZHz (30,000 PHz to 30,000,000 THz), equivalent to $3 \times 10^{19}$ to $3 \times 10^{21}$ Hz

8. Gamma Rays:

   • 30 EHz (greater than 30,000 PHz), equivalent to $> 3 \times 10^{19}$ Hz

This framework provides a detailed understanding of electromagnetic frequencies in terms of vibrations per second (Hz).

CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

An introduction to coordinate systems used in Astronomy

Tue 23 May 2017

From Wikipedia:

In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space.

The following text briefly explains the coordinate systems being used in astronomy, some of which are listed below:

RA / DEC

RA (right ascension) and DEC (declination) are the longitudes and latitudes of the sky. RA corresponds to east / west direction, similar to longitude, while DEC measures north / south directions, like latitude.

WCS

World Coordinate System (WCS) is a set of transformations that map pixel locations in an image to their real-world units, such as their position on the sky sphere. These transformations can work both forward (from pixel to sky) and backward (from sky to pixel).

FITS WCS

The FITS “World Coordinate System” (WCS) standard defines some conventions and keywords to associate coordinates with each pixel of an image.

FITS

Flexible Image Transport System (FITS) is a digital file format useful for storage, transmission and processing of scientific and other images. It is the defacto standard used by many sky tessellation softwares — in this case, HEALPix.

HEALPix header files can contain the following three letters, each depicting the coordinate system being used:

• C:Celestial = ICRS = RA / DEC (equatorial) = FK5 J2000 (default)
• G:Galactic
• E:Ecliptic

International Celestial Reference System (ICRS)

ICRS is the current standard celestial reference system adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Its origin is at the barycenter of the Solar System, with axes that are intended to be “fixed” with respect to space - this is referred to as International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF). ICRS coordinates are approximately the same as equatorial coordinates.

Fifth Fundamental Catalogue (FK5)

FK5 is part of the “Catalogue of Fundamental Stars” which provides a series of six astrometric catalogues of high precision positional data for a small selection of stars to define a celestial reference frame. J2000 refers to the instant of 12 PM (midday) on 1st January, 2000. FK5 was published in 1991 and added 3,117 new stars.

Galactic coordinate system

The galactic coordinate system is a celestial coordinate system in spherical coordinates, with its origin at the Sun, the primary direction aligned with the approximate center of the Milky Way galaxy, and the fundamental plane parallel to an approximation of the galactic plane but offset to its north. GCS has its own Galactic longitude and Galactic latitude.

Ecliptic coordinate system

A celestial coordinate system commonly used for representing the positions and orbits of Solar System objects. The system’s origin can either be the center of the Sun or the center of the Earth, its primary direction is towards the vernal (northbound) equinox, and it follows a right-handed convention.

RA measures east and west on the celestial sphere and is like longitude on the Earth. 

RA is measured in hours minutes and seconds of time. The reason for this is the sky turns once a day to the west as the earth rotates to the east.

Dec measures north and south on the celestial sphere and is like latitude on the Earth.

https://sciencenotes.org/latitude-and-longitude/

https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/latitude-and-longitude

https://www.celestron.com/blogs/knowledgebase/what-are-ra-and-dec

https://www.celestron.com/blogs/knowledgebase/what-are-ra-and-dec

https://lco.global/spacebook/sky/equatorial-coordinate-system/

https://astronomy.ua.edu/undergraduate-program/course-resources-astronomy/lab-exercise-8-cosmic-distributions-and-the-galactic-ecology/1293-2/#:~

https://www.fortworthastro.com/beginner3.html

https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsecond#

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes%27_limit

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_resolution#Single_telescope

• Angular frequency
• Minute and second of arc

• Gradian
• Degree (angle) § Subdivisions
• Sexagesimal § Modern usage
• Square minute
• Square second
• Steradian
• Milliradian

• Degree of curvature
• Degrees per second
• Geographic coordinate system
• Meridian arc
• Square degree
• Radian, a unit of plane angle
• 
  

https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/moon-hoax-why-not-use-telescopes-to-look-at-the-landers

https://www.quora.com/Why-can-t-man-photograph-the-moon-in-detail-if-we-have-telescopes-that-see-galaxies-far-away#&gid=1&pid=1

https://www.telescope-optics.net/telescope_resolution.htm#can_vary

MESONS

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/meson.html#c1

MUON

https://www.brunel.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/articles/How-a-muon-accelerator-could-unravel-some-of-the-universes-greatest-mysteries

ANTI MATTER

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267725002_Sterile_neutrinos_as_a_dark_matter_candidate

DARK MATTER

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267725002_Sterile_neutrinos_as_a_dark_matter_candidate

CERN 101

https://home.cern/science/physics

https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model

https://home.cern/science/physics/dark-matter

https://wwwcompass.cern.ch/compass/

https://home.cern/science/engineering/cryogenics-low-temperatures-high-performance

TIME DILATION

https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/physics/hl/25/revision-notes/space-time-and-motion/galilean-and-special-relativity/reference-frames/

https://forceinphysics.com/frame-of-reference/

🤷 : *No such thing as an absolute reference frame in our Universe*

In other words, there is no place in the Universe that is completely stationary

Everything is always moving relative to everything else 🤗.

*Note* 📝:    A non-inertial reference frame is a concept in physics that refers to a frame of reference that is *subjected to acceleration*. In contrast to an inertial frame, where Newton’s first law of motion holds true, a non-inertial frame experiences *fictitious forces,* which appear to act on objects within the frame but are, in fact, due to the frame’s acceleration.

*Acceleration* does this *Magics* 😎🤹.. 😉😅😂🤣😁🤦😺🤗

POV:   What the _*POV*_ you are  _*CHOOSING*_  does the *MAKES* 🤷 *SENSE* 😁🤗. OPTION 1:  General Relativity  OPTION 2: Special Relativity 🧘

*In both cases*, the magnitude of time dilation increases with _*higher velocities*_ or _*stronger accelerations*_

BLACK HOLES

The Thermodynamics of Black Holes

https://link.springer.com/article/10.12942/lrr-2001-6

Falling Into a Black Hole: Index

https://jila.colorado.edu/~ajsh/bh/schw.html

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-singularities/

COSMOLOGY BOOK SHELF

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Astronomy__Cosmology/Big_Ideas_in_Cosmology_(Coble_et_al.)

https://jila.colorado.edu/~ajsh/home.html

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=Rajantie%20A%5BAuthor%5D

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/OJTA2dev/ojta/c2c/early/inflationary/cosmology_tl.html#:~:text=Unified%20Theories&text=Only%20when%20the%20temperature%20dropped,see%20in%20our%20present%20Universe.

EARLY UNIVERSE

*Guys my real questions is* 🤔

1. Which one is the real border of this universe ?

2. How do you define those borders ?

3. Objects and Lights both are coexisting in this universe.

4. Do you really think, objects are moving faster than light.?

Oh 🙄😳.. then *what is the space ?* 

5. what are the real properties of the nature of *SPACE* !!??

6. What is the space *before* the (BIGBANG) and *thereafter* ?

7. If it is *properly vacuumed one* before the big bang. 🤔. Why not it is purely after the big bang.

That means the CURRENT vacuum *SPACE* is not purely a vacuum one 🤔 ( *virtual particle 's interactions always happening*)

then how can we say it is *vacuum space* ? or *voids* existing in this universe ?

( i mean it *inside the balloon space* !!?? *UNIVERSE* 🤔🙄😳)

https://web.njit.edu/~gary/202/Lecture26.html

🕺 One second before the *BIG BANG* happened things are here 🤷

https://physics.aps.org/articles/v5/142

1. Plank era

https://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/planck.html

2. GUT era

3. Electroweak era

4. Particle era

https://cms.cern/book/export/html/1224

The First Three Seconds: a Review of Possible Expansion Histories of the Early Universe

https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.16182

*Qus 1*): what is really before the existing *Plank era* !!??

Illustration of the density (scalar) and[-]

gravitational wave (tensor) fluctuations arising from the end of inflation. Note that the assumption that a singularity exists prior to inflation is not necessarily valid.

National Science Foundation (NASA, JPL, Keck Foundation, Moore Foundation, related) – Funded BICEP2 Program

*Qus 2*:. What is *SINGULARITY* before the big bang *POP UP* 🤷 !!!????

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_singularity

A visual history of the expanding universe includes the hot, dense state known as the Big Bang and the growth and formation of structure subsequently. The full suite of data, including the observations of the light elements and the cosmic microwave background, leaves only the Big Bang as a valid explanation for all we see. (Credit: NASA/CXC/M. Weiss)

Singularities and Black Holes

*Does light have constant SPEED or not in this EXPANDING universe ?*

https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=123199

Is the quantum vacuum disturbing the REAL SPEED of the LIGHT 🤔😳 !!??

Black hole Cosmology

SINGULARITIES and BLACK HOLES

These theorems indicate that our universe began with an *initial singularity*, the Big Bang, approximately 14 billion years ago. They also indicate that in certain circumstances (discussed below) collapsing matter will form a black hole with a *central singularity*

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-singularities/#

*Qus 3* : *what is singularity in big bang theory ?*

In the Big Bang theory, a singularity is the point where the universe began, more than 13 billion years ago. It was a single point that was incredibly hot and dense, and it initiated the expansion and cooling of space. 

 

Here are some other things to know about singularities: 

 

Definition: A singularity is a place in the universe where the laws of physics break down. 

 

Location: Singularities can occur anywhere in the universe. 

 

Mathematics: Singularities are common in the math that physicists use to understand the universe. 

 

Black holes: The point where all the mass of a black hole is trapped is also called a singularity. 

 

Event horizons: Most singularities are hidden behind event horizons. 

 

Initial singularity: Some models of the Big Bang theory predict an initial singularity that existed before the Big Bang.

The inflaton field is a hypothetical scalar field that's thought to have caused the rapid expansion of the universe in its early stages. The field's energy density was approximately constant during inflation, which caused the universe to expand tremendously.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/inflat.html#c1

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/timlin.html

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflaton

https://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/origins/inflation_zero.php

https://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/footer/glossary.php#critical%20density

BIG BANG

Big Bang

Graphical timeline of the Big Bang

Chronology of the universe

observable universe

the cosmological singularity

standard cosmological model such as ΛCDM.

extragalactic background light (EBL) amounted to 4×10⁸⁴ photons

cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was emitted, which represents the radius of the visible universe, is about 14.0 billion parsecs (about 45.7 billion light-years). The comoving distance to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.3 billion parsecs (about 46.6 billion light-years)

Research papers:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1739820_The_origin_of_matter_and_structure_in_the_universe

Reasons for FOUR forces exist Which one divide its

https://home.cern/science/physics/higgs-boson/what#:~:text=A%20spontaneously%20broken%20symmetry%20is,upsetting%20the%20symmetry%20of%20physics.&text=The%20way%20this%20works%20for,particle%20properties%20we%20observe%20today.

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/OJTA2dev/ojta/c2c/early/inflationary/cosmology_tl.html#:~:text=Unified%20Theories&text=Only%20when%20the%20temperature%20dropped,see%20in%20our%20present%20Universe.

https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/mysteries-of-the-universe/0/steps/216503

Physics in the Scalar Era

https://ippog.org/node/624

FATE OF THIS UNIVERSE

http://www.kierandkelly.com/what-is-complexity/history-of-entropy/

https://youtu.be/KR23aMjIHIY?si=H8Dy15Flo5xvFpzx

https://youtu.be/GOrWy_yNBvY?si=_c-HMdtFsqNn6fG-

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_vacuum#Electroweak_vacuum_decay

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Rip

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch

Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations

https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/quantum.html

Chemistry Books

Structure and Bonding

https://www.springer.com/series/430/books

http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/browse?type=author&value=P.+Mingos%2C+D.+Michael

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dmichael-Mingos

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mingos

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanocluster#

Chemistry books ( 2034 )

http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/handle/123456789/41

Astronomy 10,001

1) alternative biochemistry or other forms of life are possible.^[39]

²⁾ Cosmologist Alan Guth believes humans will in time be able to generate new universes.^[41]

3) Anthropic reasoning has been used to address the question as to why certain measured physical constants take the values that they do, rather than some other arbitrary values, and to explain a perception that the universe appears to be finely tuned for the existence of life.

4) Fine-tuned universe

5) All told, it takes at least 26 separate fundamental constants to describe the Universe that we presently understand, and we have no idea why these constants have the values that they do. If some of these constants were either too small or too large, our Universe as we know it would be impossible; our very existence is evidence that the laws of nature must be consistent with our existence being possible. If gravity were a little bit stronger or weaker, stars, galaxies, planets, and life would still exist. Same with:

• the strengths of the other forces,
• the masses of the quarks,
• or the value of the speed of light.

 6) https://bigthink.com/starts-with-a-bang/electron-mass-vital-life-in-universe/

Astronomy Unsolved Questions

Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › L...

List of unsolved problems in astronomy

Time-variation of fundamental constants

include 

● weakly interacting massive particles, 

● primordial black holes, and axions.

● cold dark matter 

● hot dark matter

● mixed dark matter (MDM) theory.

● grand unification theories

● 

TOP REF

https://universe-review.ca/index.htm

https://astronuclphysics.info/JadRadFyzika5.htm#

https://thespectrumofriemannium.wordpress.com/category/the-standard-model-basics/

http://fafnir.phyast.pitt.edu/particles/

https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/

https://youtube.com/@physicsislove5980?

?

Top prof:

https://users.math.msu.edu/users/gnagy/teaching/   (Maths)

Mass of Particals

https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=70243

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/part-flash.html

https://www.fas37.org/wp/the-standard-model/

https://wwwcompass.cern.ch/compass/wwwsmc/target/fundamentalparticles.html

https://molwick.com/en/matter/070-elementary-particle.html

https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06073

BOSONS

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236628225_Bosons_in_the_Zoo_of_Elementary_Particles

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_boson

Fundamental Interactions

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction

https://www.accessscience.com/content/article/a275600

https://digestiblenotes.com/physics/fundamental_particles/particle_classification.php

https://www.pw.live/exams/csir-net/classification-of-elementary-particles/

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zsnssbk/revision/2

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/standard-model-of-particle-physics-83170624/83170624

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301614262_The_Justification_of_a_realistic_Picture_of_Particles_and_Atomic_Nuclei

https://www.studocu.com/in/document/mahatma-gandhi-university/physics/elementary-particles/29579633

Fermions

In the weak interaction, fermions can exchange three types of force carriers, namely W⁺, W⁻, and Z bosons. 

The effective range of the weak force is limited to subatomic distances and is less than the diameter of a proton.

The root mean square charge radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87 fm (1 fm = 10⁻¹⁵ m).^[12][13] In 2019, two different studies, using different techniques, found this radius to be 0.833 fm, with an uncertainty of ±0.010 fm.^[14][15]

^{http://230nsc1.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/spinc.html#c2}

Fermions are a class of particles that are characterized by their half-integer spin values, and are typically associated with matter. The Standard Model of particle physics recognizes two types of elementary fermions: *quarks* and *leptons*

• Quarks

  The fundamental building blocks ofprotons and neutrons, there are six types of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Quarks have a color charge and interact with the strong force. 

• Leptons        
• There are six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tauon, and tauon neutrino. Leptons do not have a color charge. 
  

Fermions are governed by the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which states that no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state at the same time. This exclusivity is responsible for the structure of matter.

Fermions are particles or quantum fields that follow Fermi-Dirac statistics, also known as the Pauli exclusion principle. Some characteristics of fermions include:

Mass: Fermions have mass.

Spin: Fermions have a spin that is always a multiple of half-integers, such as 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, and so on.

Pauli exclusion principle: Fermions follow the Pauli exclusion principle, which means that only one fermion can occupy a particular space at a given time. 

 

In the standard model of particle physics, fermions are the matter constituents of the observable universe. Examples of fermions include:

protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, quarks, muons, lambda particles, tritium, helium-3, and uranium-233.

Astrophysics

https://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/multiwavelength-astronomy/astrophysics/06.html

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/forces/

MATHEMATICS

List of mathematical constants

• Glossary of mathematical symbols
• List of mathematical symbols by subject