18 Jul 2024

17 Jul 2024

Quantum Field


Limitations of science: 

Quantum Field Theory

Elementary particles are Indistinguishable

In fact an important result from quantum field theory is that every electron is the same, different electrons can not be distinguished from each other. 

If the electron has interactions between other electrons, after scattering, it is impossible to distinguish which was the original electron — all combinations have to be included and probability calculated.

The vacuum has complicated structure, where particles are constantly created and annihilated. 

It is impossible to define precise position or momentum of any particle in quantum field theory. 

A hundred of possible processes that can occur by interactions of particles and antiparticles (electrons and positrons) and photons, out of infinite number of possible combinations



3) Quantum field theories Topics 265 P





But no, quantum fields do not interact with matter. Quantum fields are matter. In a quantum field theory, what we perceive as particles are excitations of the quantum field itself.

The simplest “practical” quantum field theory is quantum electromagnetism. In it, two fields exist: the electromagnetic field and the “electron field”. 

These two fields continuously interact with each other, energy and momentum are transferred, and excitations are created or destroyed. 

So for instance, what we picture intuitively as an electron absorbing a photon is, in quantum electrodynamics, 

a specific interaction between the electromagnetic field and the electron field, 

in which the electromagnetic field loses one excitation quantum, 

and the electron field gains its energy, momentum and angular momentum.

==============

1) Relationship between mathematics and physics

2) Philosophical physics

3) List of unsolved problems in physics


📝 Mathematical physics 📝

The Journal of Mathematical Physics


📋 Theoretical physics 📋




==============

elements of any field.( Mathematics )

tensor fields or a tensor field is a generalization of a scalar field or vector field that assigns,

● vectors, and scalars


Euclidean vector

vector space


Theory of relativity

1) Principle of relativity

2) Relativity priority dispute

3) Criticism of the theory of relativity



Einstein's thought Experiment





As a result, relativity requires the use of concepts such as vectors, tensors, pseudotensors 

(an object's length and the rate at which time passes both change appreciably as the object's speed approaches the speed of light, meaning that more variables and more complicated mathematics are required to calculate the object's motion.)




6) 

















Gravitational field ( Gravity )


Gravitational well ( sphere of influence (SOI) )



















FORMULAS BANK



https://collegedunia.com/exams/physics-formulas-notes-and-examples-articleid-4112

https://unacademy.com/content/physics-formulas/

https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/physics/physics-equations-and-formulas-184043/

https://infinitylearn.com/surge/formulas/physics-formulas/

https://www.netexplanations.com/physics-formulas/
https://www.orchidsinternationalschool.com/physics-formula



PCM

https://unacademy.com/content/formulas/
https://www.turito.com/blog
https://isaacphysics.org/concepts?stage=all



BOOKS

https://libretexts.org/platforms/libraries/
https://openstax.org/subjects

https://phys.libretexts.org/ (enough)
https://openstax.org/details/books/university-physics-volume-1

Human


The human body consists of ~7 x 1027 atoms arranged in a highly aperiodic physical structure. Although 41 chemical elements are commonly found in the body's construction.

CHON comprises 99% of its atoms. 

Fully 87% of human body atoms are either hydrogen or oxygen.

 



16 Jul 2024

OUTER SPACE STUDIES


* Number of superclusters in the visible universe = 10 million
* Number of galaxy groups in the visible universe = 25 billion
* Number of large galaxies in the visible universe = 350 billion
* Number of dwarf galaxies in the visible universe = 7 trillion
* Number of stars in the visible universe = 30 billion trillion  (3x10²²)


https://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/Timelines







Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects.
Main article: Theoretical astronomy






Astronomy applies the concepts from physics, biology, and geology to explain their origin and evolution. We can divide astronomy into 4 sub-fields:

  • ASTROPHYSICS: Applying the laws of physics in space
  • ASTROMETRY: Mapping celestial bodies
  • ASTROGEOLOGY: Examining rocks, terrain, and material in space
  • ASTROBIOLOGY: Searching for life outside Earth
And we can categorize it into 17 branches of astronomy.

Astrophysics applies the principles of physics to astronomy.
  • 1)ASTROPHYSICS – How the laws of physics apply to stars and celestial bodies.
  • 2)COSMOLOGY – How the universe was created, evolved, and its ultimate fate.
  • 3)SPECTROSCOPY – How light reflects, absorbs, and transfers between matter.
  • 4)PHOTOMETRY – How luminous astronomical objects are in space based on electromagnetic radiation.
  • 5)HELIOPHYSICS – How the sun’s constant and dynamic radiation affects its surroundings in space.
  • 6)HELIOSEISMOLOGY – How the interior structure and dynamics of stars are composed by observing waves from their surface.
  • 7)ASTEROSEISMOLOGY – How to study the internal structure of stars by observing their oscillations.

ASTROMETRY
  • 8)ASTROMETRY – How celestial bodies are positioned and move in space.
  • 9)PLANETOLOGY – How planets form in the solar systems including their composition and dynamics in history.
  • 10)EXOPLANETOLOGY – How many and where planets exist outside our solar system.

ASTROGEOLOGY
  • 12)AREOLOGY – How geology is composed on Mars.
  • 13)SELENOGRAPHY – How physical features on the moon formed such as lunar maria, craters, and mountain ranges.
  • 14)EXOGEOLOGY – How geology relates to celestial bodies like moons, asteroids, meteorites, and comets.
ASTROBIOLOGY
  • 15)ASTROBIOLOGY -How life (including extraterrestrials) in the universe evolved, originated, and what will be its fate.
  • 16)EXOBIOLOGY – How likely and where is life in space.
  • 17) ASTROCHEMISTRY – How to study substances in celestial bodies, stars, and interstellar space.



Physical geography ( Sub fields )
















https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celestial_navigation&diffonly=true




====================

15 Jul 2024

🌿 THE UNIVERSE 🤗



https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shape_of_the_universe


Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the single worldwide location for receipt and distribution of positional measurements of minor planets, comets and outer irregular natural satellites of the major planets

https://pds.nasa.gov/
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/
https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/?publisher=National+Aeronautics+and+Space+Administration



 More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere.








https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh-My-God_particle




Meteorite classification

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meteorite_classification&diffonly=true

Asteroid spectral types

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_spectral_types

Category:Asteroid spectral classes

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Asteroid_spectral_classes

Stellar classification

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stellar_classification&diffonly=true#Luminosity_class







https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmochemistry

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules&diffonly=true

Atomic and molecular astrophysics

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomic_and_molecular_astrophysics&diffonly=true


Celestial sphere

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere

Astronomical coordinate systems

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astronomical_coordinate_systems&diffonly=true


International Celestial Reference System and its realizations

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Celestial_Reference_System_and_its_realizations&diffonly=true

🌿 THE EARTH 🌍

14 Jul 2024

core study

Seismology

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/12-510-introduction-to-seismology-spring-2010/pages/lecture-notes/

https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/105/108/105108076/

12 Jul 2024

Metallic radius


As you can see, metallic radius is defined as one-half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms in crystal or between two adjacent metal ions in the metallic lattice.

Metallic radii:
- decrease across the period due to increase in the effective nuclear charge.
- increase down the group due to increase in principal quantum number.


Points to Remember:

  1. The distance of each atom will be same because group of atoms are from the same metal.
  2. Metallic Radii decrease across the period because of increase in the effective nuclear charge.
  3. Metallic Radius increases down the group because new shell is added.
  4. Metallic radii are always biggest for the highest coordination number.

Group-wise Metallic Radii

Group 1: Alkali Metals

  • Atomic Number 3: Li - 152 pm
  • Atomic Number 11: Na - 186 pm
  • Atomic Number 19: K - 227 pm
  • Atomic Number 37: Rb - 248 pm
  • Atomic Number 55: Cs - 262 pm
  • Atomic Number 87: Fr - 270 pm (estimated)

Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

  • Atomic Number 4: Be - 112 pm
  • Atomic Number 12: Mg - 160 pm
  • Atomic Number 20: Ca - 197 pm
  • Atomic Number 38: Sr - 215 pm
  • Atomic Number 56: Ba - 222 pm
  • Atomic Number 88: Ra - 247 pm (estimated)

Group 3-12: Transition Metals

  • Atomic Number 22: Ti - 147 pm
  • Atomic Number 24: Cr - 140 pm
  • Atomic Number 26: Fe - 126 pm
  • Atomic Number 27: Co - 125 pm
  • Atomic Number 28: Ni - 124 pm
  • Atomic Number 29: Cu - 128 pm
  • Atomic Number 30: Zn - 139 pm
  • Atomic Number 40: Zr - 160 pm
  • Atomic Number 42: Mo - 139 pm
  • Atomic Number 74: W - 139 pm
  • Atomic Number 78: Pt - 139 pm

Group 13: Boron Group

  • Atomic Number 5: B (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 13: Al - 143 pm
  • Atomic Number 31: Ga - 135 pm
  • Atomic Number 49: In - 156 pm
  • Atomic Number 81: Tl - 156 pm

Group 14: Carbon Group

  • Atomic Number 6: C (not metallic in its common form)
  • Atomic Number 14: Si (not metallic in its common form)
  • Atomic Number 32: Ge - 122 pm (metalloid)
  • Atomic Number 50: Sn - 140 pm
  • Atomic Number 82: Pb - 175 pm

Group 15: Nitrogen Group

  • Atomic Number 7: N (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 15: P (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 33: As - 120 pm (metalloid)
  • Atomic Number 51: Sb - 140 pm
  • Atomic Number 83: Bi - 156 pm

Group 16: Chalcogens

  • Atomic Number 8: O (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 16: S (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 34: Se (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 52: Te - 140 pm (metalloid)
  • Atomic Number 86: Po - 150 pm (metalloid)

Group 17: Halogens

  • Atomic Number 9: F (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 17: Cl (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 35: Br (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 53: I (not metallic)
  • Atomic Number 85: At (not metallic)

Summary

  • Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals have larger metallic radii due to their larger atomic sizes and single/double valence electrons.
  • Transition Metals exhibit varying metallic radii due to their unique electron configurations and bonding characteristics.
  • Metalloids (like Ge, As, and Sb) have intermediate metallic properties.
  • Nonmetals (like N, O, F) and many elements in Groups 14 to 17 do not have metallic radii as they do not participate in metallic bonding.

Atomic NumberElementMetallic Radius (pm)
1Hydrogen37
2Helium-
3Lithium152
4Beryllium112
5Boron87
6Carbon70
7Nitrogen65
8Oxygen60
9Fluorine57
10Neon-
11Sodium186
12Magnesium160
13Aluminum143
14Silicon118
15Phosphorus110
16Sulfur104
17Chlorine99
18Argon-
19Potassium227
20Calcium197
21Scandium162
22Titanium147
23Vanadium141
24Chromium139
25Manganese139
26Iron126
27Cobalt125
28Nickel124
29Copper128
30Zinc139
31Gallium135
32Germanium122
33Arsenic118
34Selenium116
35Bromine114
36Krypton-
37Rubidium248
38Strontium215
39Yttrium180
40Zirconium159
41Niobium146
42Molybdenum139
43Technetium134
44Ruthenium132
45Rhodium134
46Palladium139
47Silver144
48Cadmium148
49Indium145
50Tin139
51Antimony139
52Tellurium139
53Iodine133
54Xenon-
55Cesium262
56Barium211
57Lanthanum208
58Cerium198
59Praseodymium196
60Neodymium185
61Promethium174
62Samarium175
63Europium188
64Gadolinium181
65Terbium182
66Dysprosium180
67Holmium175
68Erbium175
69Thulium173
70Ytterbium172
71Lutetium171
72Hafnium159
73Tantalum146
74Tungsten139
75Rhenium139
76Osmium136
77Iridium136
78Platinum139
79Gold144
80Mercury152
81Thallium156
82Lead175
83Bismuth156
84Polonium150
85Astatine202
86Radon-
87Francium270
88Radium215
89Actinium200
90Thorium175
91Protactinium165
92Uranium156
93Neptunium156
94Plutonium157
95Americium158
96Curium157
97Berkelium160
98Californium163
99Einsteinium166
100Fermium167
101Mendelevium170
102Nobelium171
103Lawrencium172
104Rutherfordium175
105Dubnium175
106Seaborgium176
107Bohrium177
108Hassium178
109Meitnerium179
110Darmstadtium180
111Roentgenium181
112Copernicium182
113Nihonium184
114Flerovium185
115Moscovium186
116Livermorium187
117Tennessine188
118Oganesson189